Salona

About

Salona (Ancient Greek: Σάλωνα, Latin: Salo) was an ancient city and the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia and near to Split, in Croatia. It was one of the largest cities of the late Roman Empire with 60,000 inhabitants. It was the last residence of the final western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos and acted as the de facto capital of the Western Roman Empire during the years 476–480. Salona was founded in the third century BC and was mostly destroyed in the invasions of the Avars and Slavs in the seventh century AD. Many Roman characteristics can be seen such as walls, a forum, a theatre, an amphitheatre, public baths and an aqueduct.

Salona was founded on a sheltered inlet on the coast. Salona is located in the modern town of Solin, next to Split, in Croatia. The terrain around Salona slopes gently seaward and is typical karst, consisting of low limestone ridges running east to west with marl in the clefts between them.

Salona grew in the area of the Greek cities of Tragurium and Epetium on the river Jadro in the third century BC. It was the birthplace of Roman Emperor Diocletian. In the first millennium BC, the Greeks set up a marketplace. Salona had also been in the territory of the Illyrian Delmatae, before the conquest of the Romans. Salona became the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia, because it sided with the future Roman Dictator Gaius Julius Caesar in the civil war against Pompey. Martia Iulia Valeria Salona Felix (the full name of the ancient city) was founded probably after the Roman civil wars under Julius Caesar. The early Roman city encompassed the area around the Forum and Theatre, with an entrance, the Porta Caesarea, on the north-east side. The walls were fortified with towers during the reign of Augustus. The early trapezoidal shape of the city was transformed by the eastern and western expansion of the city.

The city quickly acquired Roman characteristics: walls, a forum, a theatre, an amphitheatre which are the most conspicuous above-ground remains today, public baths, and an aqueduct. Many inscriptions in both Latin and Greek have been found both inside the walls and in the cemeteries outside, since Romans forbade burials inside the city boundaries. Several fine marbles sarcophagi from those cemeteries are now in the Archaeological Museum of Split. All this archaeological evidence attests to the city's prosperity and integration into the Roman Empire. Salona had a mint that was connected with the mint in Sirmium and gold and silver mines in the Dinaric Alps through Via Argentaria.

When the Roman Emperor Diocletian retired, he erected a monumental villa (palace) in a suburban location (6 km away). This massive structure, known as Diocletian's Palace, after Salona's fall became the core of the city of Split (Spalatum). Diocletian's tomb was reportedly also somewhere near Salona.

Salona's continuing prosperity resulted in the extensive church building in the fourth and fifth centuries, including an episcopal basilica and a neighboring church and baptistery inside the walls, and several shrines honoring martyrs outside. These have made it a major site for studying the development of Christian sacred architecture. The Salonitan bishop held the position of metropolitan bishop of Dalmatia. After the fall, bishopric and other remains were transferred to Split (see Archbishopric of Spalathon ). The borders and influence of Salonitan Archdiocese included almost all of today's Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina south of river Sava and west of river Drina.

Salona was the only Eastern Adriatic port-city listed in Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices, and out of all listed port-cities it had most maritime connections (those being with Alexandria, Ephesus, Nikomedia, Seleucia Pieria, and Carthago ). The connection with Ravenna was also prominent. The connections were not only about exchange of goods and monuments, prominent individuals also traveled, remained to live and die at Salona (especially from Syria). Seemingly it was a big port as for the Battle of Sena Gallica (551), Byzantine general Jon sailed from it with 38 ships (compared to Ravenna's 12).

Salona is the largest archaeological park in Croatia. According to Constantine VII 's De Administrando Imperio (tenth century), Salona was "half as large as Constantinople ". Initially believed that grew to over 60,000 inhabitants, recent excavations found it was one third larger than originally thought by the archaeologists.

In the early seventh century the Roman limes on river Danube and Sava fell and was militarily abandoned, leaving Roman province of Dalmatia open for conquest. The events of the fall of the city because of its location are relevant to the understanding when the province and coastal cities periphery succumbed to barbaric invasion. Pope Gregory I in July 600 wrote to the archbishop of Salona, Maximus, in which he expresses concern about the arrival of the Slavs ("de Sclavorum gente quae vobis valde imminet et affligor vehementer et conturbor"). According to De Administrando Imperio (tenth century) and Thomas the Archdeacon 's Historia Salonitana (thirteenth century), Salona was largely destroyed in the seventh century invasions of the Avars and Slavs (more specifically the Croats per Thomas the Archdeacon who also identified them with Goths and Slavs). In the DAI' s chapters 29 and 30 on the history of Dalmatia and fall of Salona, the terms Avars and Slavs were interchangeably used but, most probably, generally meant the Slavs. The city was reportedly conquered by trickery when the Avar-Slavs, previously defeating a Roman army dispatched from Salona/Klis at the river Danube or Sava (possibly also near Cetina ), passed the frontier castrum of Klis in disguise and expelled the Romans from the city. When it became their possession, they "settled and thereafter began gradually to make plundering raids and destroyed the Romans who dwelt in the plains and on the higher ground and took possession of their lands". Refugees from Salona settled in other coastal and island cities ( Decatera, Ragusa, Spalato, Tetrangourin, Diadora, Arbe, Vekla and Opara ) and inside Diocletian's Palace.

The exact date of destruction and fall is uncertain. Pope John IV sent abbot Martin (possibly future Pope Martin I ) to Dalmatia in 641 to redeem captives, which was interpreted that Salona must have been destroyed before that date. As Salona's refugees are also said by Thomas the Archdeacon to have founded Ragusa around 625 it meant that Salona had to be destroyed around 625 or before. In the scholarship, it was traditionally dated to 614, although opinions varied between 608 and 639. The last dated inscription, reflecting existence of life in the city, in the ruins is dated to 12 May 612. However, 1970s were found many coins, out of which few were of Heraclius and youngest minted in 630/631. It is interpreted as evidence that the city was rather becoming steadily abandoned after 614 and probably destroyed in 639. Some other archaeological excavations probably show a small group of people continued to live with newcomers until mid-seventh century when it became abandoned. Tibor Živković argued that the attack happened in the early 630s and became abandoned after that time.

The new Slavic population settled outside the ruins to the East near river Jadro, where Old-Croat graves can be found. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, Croatian kings founded and rebuilt three churches, of which of St. Stephen was used as a royal mausoleum of Croatian Kings (with found sarcophagus of Croatian Queen Helen of Zadar ), while of St. Peter and Moses (so-called Hollow Church ) was crowned king Demetrius Zvonimir. The archaeologically confirmed information is found in Historia Salonitana.

In the early seventh century the Roman limes on river Danube and Sava fell and was militarily abandoned, leaving Roman province of Dalmatia open for conquest. The events of the fall of the city because of its location are relevant to the understanding when the province and coastal cities periphery succumbed to barbaric invasion. Pope Gregory I in July 600 wrote to the archbishop of Salona, Maximus, in which he expresses concern about the arrival of the Slavs ("de Sclavorum gente quae vobis valde imminet et affligor vehementer et conturbor"). According to De Administrando Imperio (tenth century) and Thomas the Archdeacon 's Historia Salonitana (thirteenth century), Salona was largely destroyed in the seventh century invasions of the Avars and Slavs (more specifically the Croats per Thomas the Archdeacon who also identified them with Goths and Slavs). In the DAI' s chapters 29 and 30 on the history of Dalmatia and fall of Salona, the terms Avars and Slavs were interchangeably used but, most probably, generally meant the Slavs. The city was reportedly conquered by trickery when the Avar-Slavs, previously defeating a Roman army dispatched from Salona/Klis at the river Danube or Sava (possibly also near Cetina ), passed the frontier castrum of Klis in disguise and expelled the Romans from the city. When it became their possession, they "settled and thereafter began gradually to make plundering raids and destroyed the Romans who dwelt in the plains and on the higher ground and took possession of their lands". Refugees from Salona settled in other coastal and island cities ( Decatera, Ragusa, Spalato, Tetrangourin, Diadora, Arbe, Vekla and Opara ) and inside Diocletian's Palace.

The exact date of destruction and fall is uncertain. Pope John IV sent abbot Martin (possibly future Pope Martin I ) to Dalmatia in 641 to redeem captives, which was interpreted that Salona must have been destroyed before that date. As Salona's refugees are also said by Thomas the Archdeacon to have founded Ragusa around 625 it meant that Salona had to be destroyed around 625 or before. In the scholarship, it was traditionally dated to 614, although opinions varied between 608 and 639. The last dated inscription, reflecting existence of life in the city, in the ruins is dated to 12 May 612. However, 1970s were found many coins, out of which few were of Heraclius and youngest minted in 630/631. It is interpreted as evidence that the city was rather becoming steadily abandoned after 614 and probably destroyed in 639. Some other archaeological excavations probably show a small group of people continued to live with newcomers until mid-seventh century when it became abandoned. Tibor Živković argued that the attack happened in the early 630s and became abandoned after that time.

The new Slavic population settled outside the ruins to the East near river Jadro, where Old-Croat graves can be found. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, Croatian kings founded and rebuilt three churches, of which of St. Stephen was used as a royal mausoleum of Croatian Kings (with found sarcophagus of Croatian Queen Helen of Zadar ), while of St. Peter and Moses (so-called Hollow Church ) was crowned king Demetrius Zvonimir. The archaeologically confirmed information is found in Historia Salonitana.

These are the remnants of the Basilica and cemetery outside of the town. The earliest parts of the complex date back to the second century BC. The bishop and martyr Domnio was buried here after being executed in the arena of the amphitheater on 304AD.

At the end of the fourth century, the complex was partly destroyed during the German incursions, and in the mid-fifth century, a three-nave basilica was constructed on top of the ruins. Many sarcophagi can be found here. in the early seventh century, the cemetery was looted and partly destroyed.

The cemetery exhibits a feature of Christian cemeteries at that time to have deceased buried as close as possible to the martyr or Ad sanctos.

Architectural and ornamental fragments, capitals inscriptions, and columns from the area were replaced in a building built in 1898. It was restored in 2008.

The construction of the Salonitan city walls took several centuries. The earliest part of the city was surrounded by walls as early as the second century BC. During the Pax Romana the city expanded to both east and west.

During the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius around 170 A.D., under the constant threat of Germanic tribes, the east and west suburbs were included in the walls, which were fortified with at least 90 towers. Some parts of existing buildings were used in the extensions to the walls, thus making them integral. The total circumference of the elliptical shape of the walls was approximately 4 km (2.5 mi), with varying width from enclosing 240 acres 1.9 to 2.5 meters (6.2 to 8.2 ft).