Phylakopi

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Phylakopi (Greek: Φυλακωπή), located at the northern coast of the island of Milos, is one of the most important Bronze Age settlements in the Aegean and especially in the Cyclades. The importance of Phylakopi is in its continuity throughout the Bronze Age (i.e. from mid-3rd millennium BC until the 12th century BC) and because of this, it is the type-site for the investigation of several chronological periods of the Aegean Bronze Age.

Phylakopi was first excavated between 1896 and 1899 under the British School at Athens (as well as all subsequent projects). The excavation was remarkably ahead of its time, with Duncan MacKenzie (the later foreman to Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos) recording detailed stratigraphic information. The excavation revealed a hitherto unknown Bronze Age Cycladic settlement with continuity throughout the Early Bronze Age to the very end of the Late Bronze Age. It was from this excavation that the three phase stratigraphy was suggested, the second and third phases relating to periods of Minoan and Mycenaean influence respectively. The settlement was re-excavated in 1910–11 with a focus on refining ceramic chronology. The most recent excavation at the site was conducted by Professor Colin Renfrew. The excavations were covered in two monographs and revealed a previously unknown Sanctuary.

The Megaron of Phylakopi is a significant Late Bronze Age architectural complex located at Phylakopi Initially discovered in 1899 by archaeologist Duncan Mackenzie during excavations for the British School at Athens. Phylakopi is a key example of Mycenaean palatial architecture in the Aegean islands, which Mackenzie identified as a "Mycenaean Palace," with a central large hall (megaron), antechamber, and associated corridors and rooms. The subsequent work by R. M. Dawkins and J. P. Droop in 1911 had a profoundly negative impact on the site's integrity. Their re-excavation of the Megaron area is criticized in later reports for having "dug away without adequate published record most of the structure which Mackenzie’s work had revealed." Their methods caused significant disturbance, particularly in the southern part of the complex, stripping away upper layers and crucial stratigraphic relationships without proper documentation Significant re-excavation and analysis in the 1970s, under the direction of Colin Renfrew, fundamentally revised the understanding of the site's chronology and phasing.

The uppermost architectural layer is the LH IIIA (Late Helladic IIIA, c. 14th century BCE) Mycenaean-style megaron. Its classic plan includes a large main hall (approximately 8.6 x 6.2 meters) with evidence of a central hearth, entered from the south via an antechamber through a distinctive double threshold made of large stone blocks into a forehall or antechamber. Within this antechamber, evidence of a burnt wooden anta (pillar) base was found, suggesting a framed and ornamented doorway. The final, formal entry into the main hall itself was marked by crossing a substantial threshold of poros stone, measuring 2.20 meters in length.

Inside the large main room (approximately 8.6 by 6.2 meters), the central focus was a rectangular hearth. Discovered as a dark, burnt discoloration in the cement floor, it measured about 2.40 by 1.65 meters. The lack of ash layers and the defined, uncemented rectangle led excavators to conclude a removable hearthstone.

Directly beneath this final structure are the remains of its predecessor, a substantial LBI (Late Bronze Age I, c. 16th–15th centuries BCE) building complex, often referred to as the "Mansion." The 1974–75 excavations in Trench ΠA dug by Mackenzie provided definitive stratigraphic proof that the Mycenaean Megaron was not a single-phase construction. The excavators found that the mansion's plaster floors were cut through and sealed by a thick layer of leveling fill (approximately 0.9 m), upon which the foundations of the later Megaron walls were built. Key finds from the Mansion levels include fragments of a Linear A tablet and environmental samples containing tephra from the Minoan eruption of Thera, providing both cultural and chronological anchors for this phase.

Beneath these two Bronze Age monumental layers, deep soundings (particularly Trench ΠC) revealed an earlier, continuous sequence of occupation. Underlying the Mansion are Middle Cycladic ("Second City") layers, which contained multiple series of plaster floors and associated walls. Below these are Early Cycladic ("First City") layers, featuring domestic installations such as hearths, storage bins, and infant burials in pithoi. The basal layer consists of Pre-City (Phase A) deposits resting directly on bedrock, representing the initial settlement at this location.

A recurring and significant feature of the Phylakopi excavations, both in the early 20th century and during the 1974–75 campaigns, has been the discovery of infant and fetal burials within the settlement.

Multiple burials of very young individuals were found stratified within the pre-Mycenaean occupational levels beneath the Megaron complex. Unlike the extramural cemeteries used for older children and adults at contemporary sites, these infants were interred beneath the floors of domestic structures. The 1974–75 excavations uncovered three such burials in secure archaeological contexts. These finds echoed the earlier work of Dawkins and Droop in 1911, who reported discovering eight child burials in pithoi placed in shallow hollows in the bedrock beneath the earliest house foundations. They described the skeletons as belonging to children, "some old enough for the second teeth to be beginning to appear."

The consistent method involved primary inhumation in a contracted position within a ceramic vessel. The vessels used were typically large storage jars (pithoi) or other substantial pots, which were often laid horizontally. In some instances, the mouth of the jar was sealed with another pot, such as a basin. The burials were carefully placed, sometimes with associated objects (like the jug and blades in ΠB or the special plaster setting in ΠC), indicating deliberate ritual activity rather than casual disposal.

Renfrew's analysis of its occurrence at Phylakopi across several centuries (Early to Middle Cycladic periods) suggests a persistent cultural tradition. Archaeologists interpret this as reflecting a distinct social and ritual status for infants, differentiating them from older members of the community who were buried outside the settlement. The placements beneath floors may represent foundation offerings for new buildings or protective household rituals, embedding the youngest deceased within the fabric of domestic life. These burials provide crucial, non-elite evidence for the social organization, beliefs about childhood, and ritual practices of the early inhabitants of Phylakopi

The earliest settlement at this site, founded directly on bedrock, was a small village with pottery characteristic of the early Bronze Age Grotta-Pelos culture.

Main article: Phylakopi I culture The first phase of the site with substantial architecture (Phylakopi I: 2300-2000 B.C) dates from the middle of the Early Bronze Age to the middle of the Middle Bronze Age. The settlement grew throughout the Phylakopi I phase.

According to Jeremy B. Rutter, "The distribution of duck vases suggests that Phylakopi I is at least partially contemporary with later Anatolian EB 3 ( Troy V )." Also there are some indications that Phylakopi I culture was influenced by the Keros-Syros culture, as well as by the " Lefkandi I" culture with western Anatolian affinities.

It is during the second phase (Phylakopi II: 2000-1550 BC) that the settlement flourishes and becomes a major player in the Cyclades. Phylakopi II was densely occupied, with blocks of houses separated by long, straight streets. This phase is famous for the Cycladic artistic flair as seen on several pottery styles, such as "Dark Burnished ware" and "Cycladic white". The vessels often contain stylised plant and animal motifs in black and red matt paint, though most famous are the Melian bird jugs exported to Knossos. Towards the end of the period increasing amounts of Minoan pottery were found at the site, marking the start of a period of "Minoanisation", which is more visible at the start of Phylakopi III.

The Phylakopi III (1550-1100 B.C) city was constructed after the complete destruction of Phylakopi II, most likely due to earthquake activity. The phase can be divided into three sub-phases.

Phylakopi III-i sees Minoan forms begin to become more popular. Research suggests several architectural features can be ascribed to this phase. One structure, called the 'Pillar Room', was constructed with pillars and ashlar blocks. The interior contained traces of a well-preserved fresco, which depicted a delightful flying fish.

The so-called 'Mansion' likely served as an administrative centre for the settlement, owing to discovery of a Linear A tablet fragment found within the structure. The settlement also appears to have been walled during this period.

The pottery of Phylakopi III:i is heavily influenced by Minoan forms and motifs, which, along with Minoan influence in architecture, has led to the suggestion that Phylakopi was under the political control of the Minoans. In any case, Minoan ideas and culture became popular at this time within the elite circles in the Aegean and were adopted as a marker of social differentiation and "prestige".

Phylakopi III:ii sees a regression of Minoan influence after the eruption of the Thera (Santorini) volcano in LM IA (c. 1500 B.C). The phase is lacking in identifiable architectural features, though much of the pottery discovered during the 1896-99 excavations was from this phase. Mycenaean influence first becomes perceptible, primarily through Mycenaean pottery.