Castra Vetera

About

Vetera (also Vetera Castra; sometimes in older literature, on maps, and colloquially also Castra Vetera) was the name of the location of two successive Roman legionary camps in the province of Germania Inferior near present-day Xanten on the Lower Rhine. The legionary camps of Vetera were part of the Lower Germanic Limes and were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021. Research and scholarly literature distinguish between the older fort site Vetera I (13/12 BCE to 70 CE) and the younger fort site Vetera II (71 to at least the 3rd century). These sites were located approximately one Roman mile (mille passus = just under 1500 m) apart. Vetera was one of the most significant garrisons on the northern flank of the Roman Empire. In its early days, it was an essential deployment base for the Romans' expansion efforts on the right bank of the Rhine. Vetera I is currently situated on undeveloped land in the urban area of Xanten, while Vetera II is located up to ten metres below the surface of a quarry pond.

Vetera I was located on the southern slope of the Fürstenberg, a glacial terminal moraine surrounded by swamp and moorland in ancient times, a good two kilometres south-southeast of the centre of Xanten. The present-day archaeological monument is located directly north-northwest of the Xanten suburb of Birten, beneath largely agricultural land. In ancient times, the camp was located in an exposed position opposite the mouth of the river Lippe, which at that time was not yet in Wesel, but a little to the north.

In Roman times, the course of the Rhine itself was roughly the same as it is today, having shifted only slightly to the south and west. From its position on the Fürstenberg, it was therefore possible to keep a close eye on the valleys of the Rhine and the Lippe ( Lupia ).

Vetera II was built in 71 CE, following the reorganisation of the Lower Germanic army as a result of the events of 69/70, about a kilometre and a half east of Vetera I, on a low terrace of the Rhine that was not flooded at the time. In today's topography, the site lies in the area known as the Bislicher Insel, surrounded by the Rhine to the north and an old branch of the Rhine to the east, south and west. In ancient times, it was probably situated directly on the Rhine as it flowed northwards. The partially silted branch of the Rhine visible today, which forms a loop far to the south, was not formed until the Middle Ages, around 1200. Over the following centuries, this loop of the Rhine moved further south, undermining the fort site and covering it with gravel. It was in 1788/89 when the Rhine was artificially diverted and forced to take its present course, that the loop became a dead old branch of the Rhine.

The name Vetera is first mentioned by Tacitus in the Historiae, where it is referred to twice as Vetera castra and several times simply as Vetera.

The name " Vetera " is of uncertain meaning, but it is believed to have originated from a nearby pre-Roman settlement of the Cugerni. Its Germanic name was Romanised and transferred to the fort site. In his 1839 publication on the antiquities of Xanten, Philipp Houben used the term " Castra Vetera " in a reversal of the name handed down by Tacitus. This term has since found its way onto maps and into everyday language, although it never existed in this form. In scientific literature, the correct terms " Vetera " (with the differentiations between " Vetera I " and " Vetera II ") or " Vetera Castra " have been used since at least Hans Lehner 's time (1866-1938).

Following their abandonment, the Roman military camps were repurposed as quarries. Initially, the Romans themselves used the stone material from Vetera I to expand the neighbouring Colonia Ulpia Traiana. Later, in the Middle Ages, the remaining ruins were used for the construction of the monastery on the Fürstenberg. Vetera II disappeared around the year 1200 when the Rhine formed a loop extending to the south, undermining the previously flood-free site of the fort. As a result, the possible findings and features of Vetera II are now located five to ten metres below the visible surface, under the gravel and water of the old-Rhein and Bislicher Insel.

The large number of Roman remains in the Xanten area aroused the interest of scholars early on. Stephanus Winandus Pighius (1526-1604), scholaster and canon at the collegiate church since 1575, was the first to make a systematic record of the Roman remains. From 1623 to 1633, Johannes Turck illustrated the appendix to a chronicle of Kleve by Gert van der Schuiren with drawings of ancient remains. He was followed by the Wesel priest Hermann Ewich, who documented the antiquities of his home region between 1628 and 1654, and the theologian and humanist Werner Teschenmacher (1590-1638). In the late 17th and 18th centuries, the Vynen parish priest Theodor Tack and, above all, the Xanten parish priest Johannes Spenrath devoted themselves to the ancient heritage of the Xanten region.

Pighius previously expressed concern about the ongoing exploitation of Roman ruins. Despite the growing interest and objections from scholars, this exploitation continued without interruption. Between 1714 and 1716, Johannes Spenrath, the parish priest, reported over 5000 tonnes of stones excavated from the former legionary camp Vetera I. Stone excavations from the Middle Ages to modern times, which are well-documented in older sources, were so extensive that the lack of visible traces today is unsurprising. Even the targeted excavations carried out since the early modern period were not scientific investigations using field archaeological methods as we know them today. The focus of interest was solely on the find itself, and the context of the find was often ignored or not recognised. Early scholars were collectors of antiquities rather than archaeologists, and their approach to excavations contributed to the irretrievable destruction of many findings.

Philipp Houben (1767-1855) was a pivotal figure in the transition from antiquities collecting to scientific archaeology. Upon arriving in Xanten in 1798, Houben was inspired by Johannes Spenrath to study antiquities. In 1803, he established the first Xanten Museum by purchasing the old provost's house and displaying ancient artefacts in it. Between 1819 and 1844, he financed and carried out extensive excavations in the area of the legionary camps, the CUT, and the burial grounds. Houben was more meticulous than his predecessors and was the first to document not only the finds, but also the excavations and sites themselves. Working in the Xanten area at around the same time and partly together with Houben, the Wesel senior teacher Franz Fiedler (1790-1876) complemented Houben's graphic documentation with texts.

The Lower Rhine Antiquities Society was founded in 1877 by Josef Steiner, a doctor from Xanten, marking a significant milestone in the development of modern archaeology. The society conducted extensive excavations in various locations, including the CUT, the Fürstenberg, nearby graveyards and the hinterland of Xanten, where a brickworks built by Legio XXII Primigenia was discovered. The society worked closely with the scholars of the Provinzialmuseum Bonn, the predecessor of the LVR-Landesmuseum Bonn, from which it also received financial support. The establishment of the society's archaeological collection, which was published by Paul Steiner, the son of the society's founder and later head of department at the Landesmuseum Trier, was also an important event in the history of German archaeology.

Archaeological excavations in the area around Fürstenberg, in a systematic, comprehensive and modern fashion, began in 1905 under the direction of Hans Lehner, who was also the director of the Provinzialmuseum Bonn from 1899 to 1930. During excavations carried out between 1905 and 1914, and from 1925 to 1933, Lehner and his successor Franz Oelmann (1883-1963) precisely determined the location of Vetera I. They were successful in distinguishing between different camps with different dates or, rather, phases of construction, and in uncovering parts of the defences and internal buildings. These excavations identified the canaba, which was the civilian suburb of the camp, and the location of the burial grounds. The amphitheatre was also excavated and dated. However, the main focus of these excavations was on the stone fort, with the earlier construction phases only being briefly considered.

The search for Vetera II was unsuccessful for a long time. Despite some speculations pointing to the area around Bislicher Insel, no evidence was found. It was only an accumulation of finds in connection with the gravel removals that began after the Second World War that alerted the archaeologist Wilhelm Piepers, who was working in Xanten at the time. In 1955, 1957, and 1958, Harald von Petrikovits commissioned underwater archaeological investigations that definitively identified the former legionary camp and determined its extent with sufficient precision.

Following Gaius Julius Caesar 's Gallic Wars (58 to 51/50 BCE), a population vacuum emerged in the Lower Rhine region, which was dangerous for the Romans. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, who served as governor of Gaul around 39/38 BCE and 20 to 18 BCE, made efforts to address this issue by resettling Germanic peoples, establishing administrative structures, and constructing a long-distance road network. During this period, the Rhine was still considered the boundary of the Roman sphere of interest. The primary objective was to secure and develop the provinces conquered by Caesar. There was no immediate plan for further expansionist policies, as the legions were widely dispersed throughout the Gallic hinterland.

The situation changed due to ongoing attacks by Germanic peoples on the west bank of the Rhine. These attacks culminated in the Clades Lolliana battle in 17 or 16 BCE, where the Roman governor Marcus Lollius was defeated by a united force of the Sicambri, Tencteri and Usipetes. The battle had a greater political effect than any military consequences and led to a fundamental change in Roman policy towards the Germanic peoples. In 16 BCE, Augustus personally travelled to Gaul to resolve the "Germanic question" once and for all. He spent three years there, first defeating the Rhaetians and pacifying the region between the Alps and the Danube. His next step was to reorganise the deployment of the Lower Germanic army starting from 15 BCE.

The Rhine line ceased to be a defensive barrier and was transformed into an offensive deployment base against the Germanic territories located east of the river. The troops that became available after the Alpine campaign were relocated to the Rhine, and the legionary camps of Noviomagus, near Nijmegen, and Vetera were built. Recent literature has questioned whether the Augustan Germanic Wars of 12 BCE to 16 CE, which had a more offensive orientation, aimed to occupy Germania on the right bank of the Rhine as far as the Elbe, as had long been assumed.

In 13 BCE, Augustus returned to Rome and handed over supreme command to his stepson Drusus, who led a large-scale offensive against the Germanic peoples from 12-8 BCE. Vetera likely served as a base of operations for Drusus' campaigns into Germania on the eastern bank of the Rhine. Its location, opposite the mouth of the Lippe, was ideal as the Lippe valley provided access far into enemy territory. The territories of the Sicambri and Usipetes were also easily reachable from Vetera.

With Vetera as a base, flanked by the auxiliary fort of Asciburgium and the new legionary camp of Oberaden on the right bank of the Rhine, established by Drusus, the Sicambri could be constrained. Drusus conducted four campaigns into Germania on the right bank of the Rhine, with the main activities shifting to the territory of the Chatti during the conflicts. Following his premature death, the campaigns were continued by Tiberius (9-6 BCE), Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (around 3 BCE), and Marcus Vinicius ( immensum bellum, 1 to 5 CE). Tiberius regained command in 4 CE.

However, in the spring of the year 6 CE, the operations had to be cancelled due to an uprising in the province of Pannonia, which required the presence of the commander and part of the legions. Publius Quinctilius Varus (7-9) succeeded as governor, but was less fortunate, leading to the Clades Variana, also known as the "Battle of the Teutoburg Forest" in 9 CE. This battle resulted in the destruction of three legions, three alae, and six cohorts. During that event, the army was likely returning to Vetera. It is highly probable that two of the legions, Legio XVIII Augusta and Legio XVII Augusta, which perished, were previously stationed at the camp.

Subsequently, the Romans evacuated all garrisons on the east bank of the Rhine and reduced their ambitions towards Germania. Tiberius, who had returned to the Rhine, focused on strengthening and consolidating the river frontier. The number of legions on the Rhine was increased from six to eight. Legio V Alaudae and Legio XXI Rapax replaced the lost units from Vetera, which, in 11/12 CE, was designated as the capital of the newly established Lower Germanic army district ( Exercitus Germanicus Inferior ).